Is Cesium A Transition Metal

Not to be confused with cerium.

Chemical chemical element, symbol Cs and atomic number 55

Caesium, ₅₅ Cs

Caesium
Pronunciation	​( SEE-zee-əm)
Culling proper name	cesium (The states)
Advent	pale gilt
Standard atomic weight A r°(Cs)	132.905451 96 ±0.000000 06 132.91±0.01 (abridged)[1]
Caesium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Golden Mercury (element) Thallium Pb Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson Rb ↑ Cs ↓ Fr xenon ← caesium → barium
Diminutive number (Z)	55
Group	group 1: hydrogen and alkali metals
Period	period 6
Cake	s-block
Electron configuration	[Xe] 6sone
Electrons per shell	two, 8, 18, eighteen, 8, one
Physical properties
Stage atSTP	solid
Melting point	301.7 K ​(28.v °C, ​83.3 °F)
Boiling betoken	944 K ​(671 °C, ​1240 °F)
Density (nearr.t.)	one.93 g/cmthree
when liquid (atk.p.)	1.843 one thousand/cm3
Disquisitional indicate	1938 K, 9.4 MPa[2]
Oestrus of fusion	2.09 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	63.nine kJ/mol
Molar estrus capacity	32.210 J/(mol·Chiliad)
Vapour pressure P (Pa) 1 x 100 one g 10 thousand 100 chiliad at T (M) 418 469 534 623 750 940
Atomic backdrop
Oxidation states	−1, +1 [3] (a strongly basic oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 0.79
Ionization energies	1st: 375.vii kJ/mol second: 2234.three kJ/mol 3rd: 3400 kJ/mol
Diminutive radius	empirical: 265 pm
Covalent radius	244±11 pm
Van der Waals radius	343 pm
Spectral lines of caesium
Other backdrop
Natural occurrence	primordial
Crystal structure	​body-centred cubic (bcc)
Thermal expansion	97 µm/(one thousand⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity	35.nine Due west/(m⋅Yard)
Electrical resistivity	205 nΩ⋅grand (at twenty °C)
Magnetic ordering	paramagnetic[4]
Young's modulus	ane.vii GPa
Bulk modulus	1.6 GPa
Mohs hardness	0.2
Brinell hardness	0.fourteen MPa
CAS Number	7440-46-2
History
Naming	from Latin caesius , sky blue, for its spectral colours
Discovery	Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff (1860)
Offset isolation	Carl Setterberg (1882)
Primary isotopes of caesium
Iso­tope Abun­dance Half-life (t 1/2) Decay style Pro­duct 133Cs 100% stable 134Cs syn 2.0648 y ε 134Xe β− 134Ba 135Cs trace 2.three×tensix y β− 135Ba 137Cs syn 30.17 y[v] β− 137Ba
Category: Caesium view talk edit | references

Caesium (IUPAC spelling^[six]) (or cesium in American English language)^{[notation 1]} is a element with the symbol Cs and diminutive number 55. Information technology is a soft, argent-golden alkali metal with a melting point of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F), which makes it 1 of only five elemental metals that are liquid at or nigh room temperature.^{[notation 2]} Caesium has physical and chemical backdrop similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The well-nigh reactive of all metals, it is pyrophoric and reacts with h2o fifty-fifty at −116 °C (−177 °F). Information technology is the least electronegative chemical element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale. It has only one stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite. The chemical element has 40 known isotopes, making it, along with barium and mercury, 1 of the elements with the nearly isotopes.^[11] Caesium-137, a fission product, is extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors.^{[ why? ]}

The German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy. The get-go minor applications for caesium were every bit a "getter" in vacuum tubes and in photoelectric cells. In 1967, interim on Einstein'south proof that the speed of light is the near constant dimension in the universe, the International System of Units used two specific wave counts from an emission spectrum of caesium-133 to co-define the second and the metre. Since and then, caesium has been widely used in highly authentic diminutive clocks.

Since the 1990s, the largest awarding of the element has been equally caesium formate for drilling fluids, but information technology has a range of applications in the production of electricity, in electronics, and in chemical science. The radioactive isotope caesium-137 has a half-life of about xxx years and is used in medical applications, industrial gauges, and hydrology. Nonradioactive caesium compounds are just mildly toxic, but the pure metal's tendency to react explosively with h2o means that caesium is considered a hazardous fabric, and the radioisotopes present a significant health and ecological take a chance in the environment.

Characteristics [edit]

Physical properties [edit]

Loftier-purity caesium-133 stored in argon.

Of all elements that are solid at room temperature, caesium is the softest: it has a hardness of 0.ii Mohs. It is a very ductile, pale metal, which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen.^{[12] [13] [14]} When in the presence of mineral oil (where it is all-time kept during ship), it loses its metallic lustre and takes on a duller, grey appearance. It has a melting point of 28.five °C (83.three °F), making information technology i of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature. Mercury is the only stable elemental metallic with a known melting signal lower than caesium.^{[notation 3] [16]} In addition, the metal has a rather low boiling bespeak, 641 °C (one,186 °F), the lowest of all metals other than mercury.^[17] Its compounds burn with a blue^{[eighteen] [19]} or violet^[19] colour.

Caesium crystals (aureate) compared to rubidium crystals (silver)

Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals, gilt, and mercury (amalgams). At temperatures below 650 °C (one,202 °F), information technology does non alloy with cobalt, iron, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, tantalum, or tungsten. It forms well-defined intermetallic compounds with antimony, gallium, indium, and thorium, which are photosensitive.^[12] It mixes with all the other brine metals (except lithium); the alloy with a molar distribution of 41% caesium, 47% potassium, and 12% sodium has the lowest melting point of any known metal blend, at −78 °C (−108 °F).^{[sixteen] [20]} A few amalgams have been studied: CsHg
_two is black with a purple metal lustre, while CsHg is golden-coloured, likewise with a metallic lustre.^[21]

The gilded colour of caesium comes from the decreasing frequency of low-cal required to excite electrons of the alkali metals equally the group is descended. For lithium through rubidium this frequency is in the ultraviolet, but for caesium information technology enters the blue–violet end of the spectrum; in other words, the plasmonic frequency of the alkali metals becomes lower from lithium to caesium. Thus caesium transmits and partially absorbs violet light preferentially while other colours (having lower frequency) are reflected; hence information technology appears yellowish.^[22]

Chemical properties [edit]

Improver of a small amount of caesium to common cold h2o is explosive.

Caesium metal is highly reactive and very pyrophoric. It ignites spontaneously in air, and reacts explosively with water even at depression temperatures, more then than the other brine metals (outset group of the periodic tabular array).^[12] Information technology reacts with ice at temperatures as low as −116 °C (−177 °F).^[16] Because of this high reactivity, caesium metallic is classified as a hazardous material. Information technology is stored and shipped in dry, saturated hydrocarbons such as mineral oil. It tin be handled only nether inert gas, such as argon. However, a caesium-water explosion is often less powerful than a sodium-water explosion with a like corporeality of sodium. This is because caesium explodes instantly upon contact with water, leaving footling time for hydrogen to accumulate.^[23] Caesium can be stored in vacuum-sealed borosilicate glass ampoules. In quantities of more about 100 grams (3.5 oz), caesium is shipped in hermetically sealed, stainless steel containers.^[12]

The chemistry of caesium is like to that of other brine metals, in particular rubidium, the element above caesium in the periodic tabular array.^[24] Equally expected for an alkali metal, the merely common oxidation country is +ane.^{[annotation 4]} Some slight differences arise from the fact that it has a higher diminutive mass and is more than electropositive than other (nonradioactive) alkali metals.^[26] Caesium is the almost electropositive element.^{[notation 5] [16]} The caesium ion is also larger and less "hard" than those of the lighter brine metals.

Compounds [edit]

Ball-and-stick model of the cubic coordination of Cs and Cl in CsCl

Most caesium compounds contain the chemical element every bit the cation Cs ⁺
, which binds ionically to a wide variety of anions. One noteworthy exception is the caeside anion (Cs ⁻
),^[three] and others are the several suboxides (encounter section on oxides below). More recently, caesium is predicted to acquit every bit a p-block element and capable of forming higher fluorides with higher oxidation states (i.east., CsF_northward with due north > 1) under loftier pressure.^[28] This prediction needs to exist validated by farther experiments.^[29]

Salts of Cs⁺ are unremarkably colourless unless the anion itself is coloured. Many of the elementary salts are hygroscopic, but less so than the corresponding salts of lighter alkali metals. The phosphate,^[30] acetate, carbonate, halides, oxide, nitrate, and sulfate salts are water-soluble. Double salts are often less soluble, and the low solubility of caesium aluminium sulfate is exploited in refining Cs from ores. The double common salt with antimony (such as CsSbCl
₄ ), bismuth, cadmium, copper, iron, and pb are also poorly soluble.^[12]

Caesium hydroxide (CsOH) is hygroscopic and strongly bones.^[24] Information technology apace etches the surface of semiconductors such as silicon.^[31] CsOH has been previously regarded past chemists as the "strongest base of operations", reflecting the relatively weak attraction between the large Cs⁺ ion and OH⁻;^[xviii] it is indeed the strongest Arrhenius base; yet, a number of compounds such every bit n-butyllithium, sodium amide, sodium hydride, caesium hydride, etc., which cannot be dissolved in water every bit reacting violently with information technology simply rather but used in some anhydrous polar aprotic solvents, are far more than basic on the basis of the Brønsted–Lowry acrid–base theory.^[24]

A stoichiometric mixture of caesium and gilt will react to form yellow caesium auride (Cs⁺Au⁻) upon heating. The auride anion here behaves as a pseudohalogen. The compound reacts violently with water, yielding caesium hydroxide, metallic gold, and hydrogen gas; in liquid ammonia it tin be reacted with a caesium-specific ion substitution resin to produce tetramethylammonium auride. The analogous platinum compound, red caesium platinide (Cs₂Pt), contains the platinide ion that behaves as a pseudochalcogen.^[32]

Complexes [edit]

Like all metal cations, Cs⁺ forms complexes with Lewis bases in solution. Considering of its big size, Cs⁺ unremarkably adopts coordination numbers greater than 6, the number typical for the smaller element of group i cations. This difference is apparent in the 8-coordination of CsCl. This loftier coordination number and softness (trend to form covalent bonds) are properties exploited in separating Cs⁺ from other cations in the remediation of nuclear wastes, where ¹³⁷Cs⁺ must be separated from large amounts of nonradioactive Thou⁺.^[33]

Halides [edit]

Caesium fluoride (CsF) is a hygroscopic white solid that is widely used in organofluorine chemistry as a source of fluoride anions.^[35] Caesium fluoride has the halite construction, which ways that the Cs⁺ and F⁻ pack in a cubic closest packed array every bit do Na⁺ and Cl⁻ in sodium chloride.^[24] Notably, caesium and fluorine have the lowest and highest electronegativities, respectively, amidst all the known elements.

Caesium chloride (CsCl) crystallizes in the simple cubic crystal system. Too chosen the "caesium chloride structure",^[26] this structural motif is composed of a primitive cubic lattice with a two-atom footing, each with an eightfold coordination; the chloride atoms prevarication upon the lattice points at the edges of the cube, while the caesium atoms lie in the holes in the middle of the cubes. This construction is shared with CsBr and CsI, and many other compounds that do not incorporate Cs. In dissimilarity, well-nigh other alkali metal halides have the sodium chloride (NaCl) structure.^[26] The CsCl structure is preferred because Cs⁺ has an ionic radius of 174 pm and Cl ⁻
181 pm.^[36]

Oxides [edit]

More so than the other brine metals, caesium forms numerous binary compounds with oxygen. When caesium burns in air, the superoxide CsO
_two is the primary product.^[37] The "normal" caesium oxide (Cs
₂ O) forms yellow-orange hexagonal crystals,^[38] and is the only oxide of the anti-CdCl
₂ type.^[39] Information technology vaporizes at 250 °C (482 °F), and decomposes to caesium metallic and the peroxide Cs
₂ O
_two at temperatures above 400 °C (752 °F). In improver to the superoxide and the ozonide CsO
_three ,^{[40] [41]} several brightly coloured suboxides accept too been studied.^[42] These include Cs
₇ O, Cs
_four O, Cs
_eleven O
_three , Cs
_three O (dark-green^[43]), CsO, Cs
_three O
₂ ,^[44] besides as Cs
₇ O
₂ .^{[45] [46]} The latter may be heated in a vacuum to generate Cs
₂ O.^[39] Binary compounds with sulfur, selenium, and tellurium likewise be.^[12]

Isotopes [edit]

Caesium has 40 known isotopes, ranging in mass number (i.e. number of nucleons in the nucleus) from 112 to 151. Several of these are synthesized from lighter elements past the slow neutron capture procedure (South-process) inside old stars^[47] and by the R-process in supernova explosions.^[48] The only stable caesium isotope is ¹³³Cs, with 78 neutrons. Although it has a large nuclear spin ( 7 / 2 +), nuclear magnetic resonance studies can use this isotope at a resonating frequency of 11.seven MHz.^[49]

The radioactive ¹³⁵Cs has a very long half-life of well-nigh two.iii million years, the longest of all radioactive isotopes of caesium. ¹³⁷Cs and ¹³⁴Cs have half-lives of 30 and two years, respectively. ¹³⁷Cs decomposes to a brusk-lived ^137mBa by beta decay, and then to nonradioactive barium, while ¹³⁴Cs transforms into ¹³⁴Ba straight. The isotopes with mass numbers of 129, 131, 132 and 136, have half-lives betwixt a solar day and two weeks, while most of the other isotopes have half-lives from a few seconds to fractions of a second. At least 21 metastable nuclear isomers exist. Other than ^134mCs (with a half-life of but under iii hours), all are very unstable and decay with half-lives of a few minutes or less.^{[50] [51]}

The isotope ¹³⁵Cs is 1 of the long-lived fission products of uranium produced in nuclear reactors.^[52] However, this fission product yield is reduced in nigh reactors because the predecessor, ¹³⁵Xe, is a potent neutron poisonous substance and frequently transmutes to stable ¹³⁶Xe before it can decay to ¹³⁵Cs.^{[53] [54]}

The beta decay from ¹³⁷Cs to ^137mBa is a strong emission of gamma radiation.^{[55] 137}Cs and ^ninetySr are the chief medium-lived products of nuclear fission, and the prime number sources of radioactivity from spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling, lasting several hundred years.^[56] Those two isotopes are the largest source of residual radioactivity in the area of the Chernobyl disaster.^[57] Considering of the low capture rate, disposing of ¹³⁷Cs through neutron capture is not viable and the but electric current solution is to allow it to disuse over time.^[58]

Almost all caesium produced from nuclear fission comes from the beta decay of originally more neutron-rich fission products, passing through diverse isotopes of iodine and xenon.^[59] Because iodine and xenon are volatile and can diffuse through nuclear fuel or air, radioactive caesium is often created far from the original site of fission.^[lx] With nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s through the 1980s, ¹³⁷Cs was released into the atmosphere and returned to the surface of the world every bit a component of radioactive fallout. It is a ready marker of the movement of soil and sediment from those times.^[12]

Occurrence [edit]

Pollucite, a caesium mineral

Caesium is a relatively rare chemical element, estimated to average 3 parts per million in the Globe's crust.^[61] It is the 45th most abundant element and the 36th amongst the metals. Nevertheless, it is more abundant than such elements every bit antimony, cadmium, can, and tungsten, and two orders of magnitude more than arable than mercury and silver; it is 3.3% as arable equally rubidium, with which information technology is closely associated, chemically.^[12]

Due to its large ionic radius, caesium is i of the "incompatible elements".^[62] During magma crystallization, caesium is concentrated in the liquid stage and crystallizes final. Therefore, the largest deposits of caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process. Because caesium does not substitute for potassium equally readily as rubidium does, the alkali evaporite minerals sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgCl
_three ·6H
₂ O) may comprise just 0.002% caesium. Consequently, caesium is institute in few minerals. Per centum amounts of caesium may be found in beryl (Exist
_three Al
₂ (SiO
_iii )
₆ ) and avogadrite ((G,Cs)BF
_four ), upward to 15 wt% Cs₂O in the closely related mineral pezzottaite (Cs(Exist
_two Li)Al
₂ Si
_vi O
_eighteen ), up to 8.iv wt% Cs₂O in the rare mineral londonite ((Cs,K)Al
_four Be
_iv (B,Be)
₁₂ O
₂₈ ), and less in the more than widespread rhodizite.^[12] The only economically important ore for caesium is pollucite Cs(AlSi
_two O
_six ), which is plant in a few places around the world in zoned pegmatites, associated with the more than commercially important lithium minerals, lepidolite and petalite. Within the pegmatites, the large grain size and the strong separation of the minerals results in high-grade ore for mining.^[63]

The earth's near pregnant and richest known source of caesium is the Tanco Mine at Bernic Lake in Manitoba, Canada, estimated to contain 350,000 metric tons of pollucite ore, representing more two-thirds of the globe'southward reserve base.^{[63] [64]} Although the stoichiometric content of caesium in pollucite is 42.six%, pure pollucite samples from this deposit contain just about 34% caesium, while the average content is 24 wt%.^[64] Commercial pollucite contains more than 19% caesium.^[65] The Bikita pegmatite deposit in Zimbabwe is mined for its petalite, but it also contains a significant amount of pollucite. Another notable source of pollucite is in the Karibib Desert, Namibia.^[64] At the nowadays rate of globe mine production of v to ten metric tons per year, reserves volition last for thousands of years.^[12]

Production [edit]

Mining and refining pollucite ore is a selective procedure and is conducted on a smaller calibration than for most other metals. The ore is crushed, hand-sorted, but non ordinarily concentrated, and so ground. Caesium is then extracted from pollucite primarily by iii methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and straight reduction.^{[12] [66]}

In the acid digestion, the silicate pollucite rock is dissolved with strong acids, such every bit hydrochloric (HCl), sulfuric (H
₂ SO
₄ ), hydrobromic (HBr), or hydrofluoric (HF) acids. With hydrochloric acrid, a mixture of soluble chlorides is produced, and the insoluble chloride double salts of caesium are precipitated equally caesium antimony chloride (Cs
_iv SbCl
₇ ), caesium iodine chloride (Cs
₂ ICl), or caesium hexachlorocerate (Cs
₂ (CeCl
₆ )). Afterwards separation, the pure precipitated double salt is decomposed, and pure CsCl is precipitated by evaporating the water.

The sulfuric acid method yields the insoluble double salt directly as caesium alum (CsAl(SO
₄ )
₂ ·12H
_two O). The aluminium sulfate component is converted to insoluble aluminium oxide by roasting the alum with carbon, and the resulting product is leached with h2o to yield a Cs
_ii SO
₄ solution.^[12]

Roasting pollucite with calcium carbonate and calcium chloride yields insoluble calcium silicates and soluble caesium chloride. Leaching with water or dilute ammonia (NH
₄ OH) yields a dilute chloride (CsCl) solution. This solution tin be evaporated to produce caesium chloride or transformed into caesium alum or caesium carbonate. Though non commercially feasible, the ore can be directly reduced with potassium, sodium, or calcium in vacuum to produce caesium metal straight.^[12]

Most of the mined caesium (equally salts) is directly converted into caesium formate (HCOO⁻Cs⁺) for applications such as oil drilling. To supply the developing market, Cabot Corporation built a production plant in 1997 at the Tanco mine near Bernic Lake in Manitoba, with a capacity of 12,000 barrels (1,900 m³) per twelvemonth of caesium formate solution.^[67] The primary smaller-scale commercial compounds of caesium are caesium chloride and nitrate.^[68]

Alternatively, caesium metal may exist obtained from the purified compounds derived from the ore. Caesium chloride and the other caesium halides tin exist reduced at 700 to 800 °C (1,292 to 1,472 °F) with calcium or barium, and caesium metal distilled from the result. In the same way, the aluminate, carbonate, or hydroxide may exist reduced by magnesium.^[12]

The metal can likewise be isolated by electrolysis of fused caesium cyanide (CsCN). Exceptionally pure and gas-free caesium tin can be produced by 390 °C (734 °F) thermal decomposition of caesium azide CsN
_iii , which can exist produced from aqueous caesium sulfate and barium azide.^[66] In vacuum applications, caesium dichromate tin can be reacted with zirconium to produce pure caesium metal without other gaseous products.^[68]

Cs
₂ Cr
_two O
₇ + 2 Zr → two Cs + 2 ZrO
_two + Cr
₂ O
₃

The price of 99.eight% pure caesium (metal footing) in 2009 was well-nigh $10 per gram ($280/oz), but the compounds are significantly cheaper.^[64]

History [edit]

In 1860, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in the mineral water from Dürkheim, Federal republic of germany. Because of the vivid blue lines in the emission spectrum, they derived the name from the Latin word caesius, pregnant sky-blue.^{[note half dozen] [69] [lxx] [71]} Caesium was the first element to be discovered with a spectroscope, which had been invented past Bunsen and Kirchhoff just a year previously.^[xvi]

To obtain a pure sample of caesium, 44,000 litres (9,700 imp gal; 12,000 US gal) of mineral water had to be evaporated to yield 240 kilograms (530 lb) of full-bodied salt solution. The alkaline earth metals were precipitated either every bit sulfates or oxalates, leaving the alkali metal in the solution. After conversion to the nitrates and extraction with ethanol, a sodium-free mixture was obtained. From this mixture, the lithium was precipitated past ammonium carbonate. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium grade insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid, but these salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water, and the less-soluble caesium and rubidium hexachloroplatinate ((Cs,Rb)₂PtCl₆) were obtained past fractional crystallization. Later on reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen, caesium and rubidium were separated by the difference in solubility of their carbonates in booze. The process yielded nine.2 grams (0.32 oz) of rubidium chloride and vii.3 grams (0.26 oz) of caesium chloride from the initial 44,000 litres of mineral water.^[70]

From the caesium chloride, the two scientists estimated the atomic weight of the new chemical element at 123.35 (compared to the currently accustomed i of 132.9).^[70] They tried to generate elemental caesium past electrolysis of molten caesium chloride, but instead of a metal, they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which "neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope showed the slightest trace of metal substance"; as a upshot, they assigned information technology equally a subchloride (Cs
_ii Cl). In reality, the product was probably a colloidal mixture of the metal and caesium chloride.^[72] The electrolysis of the aqueous solution of chloride with a mercury cathode produced a caesium constructing which readily decomposed under the aqueous atmospheric condition.^[70] The pure metal was eventually isolated past the German chemist Carl Setterberg while working on his doctorate with Kekulé and Bunsen.^[71] In 1882, he produced caesium metal by electrolysing caesium cyanide, fugitive the problems with the chloride.^[73]

Historically, the well-nigh of import use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical fields. Very few applications existed for caesium until the 1920s, when it came into employ in radio vacuum tubes, where it had 2 functions; equally a getter, information technology removed excess oxygen after manufacture, and as a blanket on the heated cathode, it increased the electrical conductivity. Caesium was not recognized as a high-performance industrial metal until the 1950s.^[74] Applications for nonradioactive caesium included photoelectric cells, photomultiplier tubes, optical components of infrared spectrophotometers, catalysts for several organic reactions, crystals for scintillation counters, and in magnetohydrodynamic power generators.^[12] Caesium is too used as a source of positive ions in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS).

Since 1967, the International System of Measurements has based the chief unit of measurement of time, the 2nd, on the properties of caesium. The International Arrangement of Units (SI) defines the second as the duration of ix,192,631,770 cycles at the microwave frequency of the spectral line respective to the transition between ii hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of caesium-133.^[75] The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures of 1967 divers a 2d as: "the elapsing of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave light absorbed or emitted by the hyperfine transition of caesium-133 atoms in their ground land undisturbed by external fields".

Applications [edit]

Petroleum exploration [edit]

The largest present-mean solar day apply of nonradioactive caesium is in caesium formate drilling fluids for the extractive oil industry.^[12] Aqueous solutions of caesium formate (HCOO⁻Cs⁺)—made by reacting caesium hydroxide with formic acid—were developed in the mid-1990s for utilize as oil well drilling and completion fluids. The function of a drilling fluid is to lubricate drill bits, to bring stone cuttings to the surface, and to maintain pressure on the formation during drilling of the well. Completion fluids assist the emplacement of control hardware after drilling only prior to production by maintaining the pressure level.^[12]

The loftier density of the caesium formate brine (upwardly to 2.3 g/cm³, or nineteen.2 pounds per gallon),^[76] coupled with the relatively benign nature of about caesium compounds, reduces the requirement for toxic high-density suspended solids in the drilling fluid—a significant technological, applied science and environmental advantage. Dissimilar the components of many other heavy liquids, caesium formate is relatively environment-friendly.^[76] Caesium formate alkali can exist blended with potassium and sodium formates to decrease the density of the fluids to that of water (one.0 thou/cm³, or 8.3 pounds per gallon). Furthermore, it is biodegradable and may exist recycled, which is important in view of its loftier price (almost $four,000 per butt in 2001).^[77] Alkali formates are safe to handle and practice not damage the producing formation or downhole metals as corrosive alternative, high-density brines (such as zinc bromide ZnBr
₂ solutions) sometimes do; they too require less cleanup and reduce disposal costs.^[12]

Atomic clocks [edit]

Atomic clock ensemble at the U.S. Naval Observatory

FOCS-1, a continuous cold caesium fountain atomic clock in Switzerland, started operating in 2004 at an uncertainty of one second in 30 million years

Caesium-based atomic clocks use the electromagnetic transitions in the hyperfine structure of caesium-133 atoms as a reference bespeak. The first accurate caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland.^[78] Caesium clocks accept improved over the past one-half-century and are regarded as "the near accurate realization of a unit of measurement that flesh has yet achieved."^[75] These clocks measure frequency with an fault of 2 to 3 parts in 10¹⁴, which corresponds to an accuracy of 2 nanoseconds per day, or one 2nd in 1.four million years. The latest versions are more than accurate than 1 part in ten¹⁵, about 1 second in xx one thousand thousand years.^[12] The caesium standard is the primary standard for standards-compliant time and frequency measurements.^[79] Caesium clocks regulate the timing of cell phone networks and the Net.^[80]

Definition of the 2nd [edit]

The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined past taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency Δν _Cs , the unperturbed ground-country hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be ix192 631 770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to south⁻¹.

Electric ability and electronics [edit]

Caesium vapour thermionic generators are depression-power devices that convert heat energy to electrical energy. In the two-electrode vacuum tube converter, caesium neutralizes the infinite charge nigh the cathode and enhances the current menses.^[81]

Caesium is also important for its photoemissive properties, converting light to electron flow. It is used in photoelectric cells because caesium-based cathodes, such as the intermetallic compound K
_two CsSb, have a low threshold voltage for emission of electrons.^[82] The range of photoemissive devices using caesium include optical character recognition devices, photomultiplier tubes, and video camera tubes.^{[83] [84]} Nevertheless, germanium, rubidium, selenium, silicon, tellurium, and several other elements tin be substituted for caesium in photosensitive materials.^[12]

Caesium iodide (CsI), bromide (CsBr) and caesium fluoride (CsF) crystals are employed for scintillators in scintillation counters widely used in mineral exploration and particle physics research to observe gamma and X-ray radiation. Being a heavy element, caesium provides practiced stopping power with amend detection. Caesium compounds may provide a faster response (CsF) and exist less hygroscopic (CsI).

Caesium vapour is used in many common magnetometers.^[85]

The element is used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry.^[86] Like other alkali metals, caesium has a swell affinity for oxygen and is used as a "getter" in vacuum tubes.^[87] Other uses of the metallic include high-free energy lasers, vapour glow lamps, and vapour rectifiers.^[12]

Centrifugation fluids [edit]

The high density of the caesium ion makes solutions of caesium chloride, caesium sulfate, and caesium trifluoroacetate (Cs(O
_ii CCF
_three )) useful in molecular biological science for density slope ultracentrifugation.^[88] This engineering is used primarily in the isolation of viral particles, subcellular organelles and fractions, and nucleic acids from biological samples.^[89]

Chemical and medical use [edit]

Relatively few chemic applications use caesium.^[ninety] Doping with caesium compounds enhances the effectiveness of several metallic-ion catalysts for chemical synthesis, such equally acrylic acid, anthraquinone, ethylene oxide, methanol, phthalic anhydride, styrene, methyl methacrylate monomers, and various olefins. Information technology is too used in the catalytic conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide in the production of sulfuric acid.^[12]

Caesium fluoride enjoys a niche employ in organic chemistry as a base^[24] and equally an anhydrous source of fluoride ion.^[91] Caesium salts sometimes supercede potassium or sodium salts in organic synthesis, such every bit cyclization, esterification, and polymerization. Caesium has also been used in thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): When exposed to radiation, information technology acquires crystal defects that, when heated, revert with emission of light proportionate to the received dose. Thus, measuring the lite pulse with a photomultiplier tube tin permit the accumulated radiations dose to be quantified.

Nuclear and isotope applications [edit]

Caesium-137 is a radioisotope unremarkably used equally a gamma-emitter in industrial applications. Its advantages include a one-half-life of roughly thirty years, its availability from the nuclear fuel cycle, and having ¹³⁷Ba as a stable end product. The high water solubility is a disadvantage which makes it incompatible with large pool irradiators for food and medical supplies.^[92] Information technology has been used in agronomics, cancer treatment, and the sterilization of food, sewage sludge, and surgical equipment.^{[12] [93]} Radioactive isotopes of caesium in radiation devices were used in the medical field to treat certain types of cancer,^[94] simply emergence of better alternatives and the utilize of water-soluble caesium chloride in the sources, which could create broad-ranging contamination, gradually put some of these caesium sources out of use.^{[95] [96]} Caesium-137 has been employed in a diverseness of industrial measurement gauges, including moisture, density, levelling, and thickness gauges.^[97] Information technology has besides been used in well logging devices for measuring the electron density of the rock formations, which is analogous to the bulk density of the formations.^[98]

Caesium-137 has been used in hydrologic studies analogous to those with tritium. Every bit a daughter product of fission bomb testing from the 1950s through the mid-1980s, caesium-137 was released into the atmosphere, where it was absorbed readily into solution. Known yr-to-twelvemonth variation within that menstruation allows correlation with soil and sediment layers. Caesium-134, and to a bottom extent caesium-135, have also been used in hydrology to measure out the caesium output by the nuclear power industry. While they are less prevalent than either caesium-133 or caesium-137, these bellwether isotopes are produced solely from anthropogenic sources.^[99]

Other uses [edit]

Schematics of an electrostatic ion thruster developed for utilize with caesium or mercury fuel

Caesium and mercury were used as a propellant in early ion engines designed for spacecraft propulsion on very long interplanetary or extraplanetary missions. The fuel was ionized by contact with a charged tungsten electrode. Simply corrosion by caesium on spacecraft components has pushed evolution in the direction of inert gas propellants, such as xenon, which are easier to handle in basis-based tests and do less potential damage to the spacecraft.^[12] Xenon was used in the experimental spacecraft Deep Space ane launched in 1998.^{[100] [101]} Nevertheless, field-emission electric propulsion thrusters that advance liquid metal ions such as caesium have been congenital.^[102]

Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and pyrotechnic colorant to burn silicon in infrared flares,^[103] such every bit the LUU-19 flare,^[104] because it emits much of its lite in the nigh infrared spectrum.^[105] Caesium compounds may have been used as fuel additives to reduce the radar signature of frazzle plumes in the Lockheed A-12 CIA reconnaissance aircraft.^[106] Caesium and rubidium have been added as a carbonate to glass considering they reduce electrical conductivity and improve stability and durability of fibre optics and night vision devices. Caesium fluoride or caesium aluminium fluoride are used in fluxes formulated for brazing aluminium alloys that incorporate magnesium.^[12]

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power-generating systems were researched, only failed to gain widespread acceptance.^[107] Caesium metal has also been considered as the working fluid in high-temperature Rankine wheel turboelectric generators.^[108]

Caesium salts have been evaluated every bit antishock reagents following the assistants of arsenical drugs. Because of their result on eye rhythms, however, they are less probable to be used than potassium or rubidium salts. They have also been used to treat epilepsy.^[12]

Caesium-133 can be light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation cooled and used to probe key and technological bug in quantum physics. It has a particularly convenient Feshbach spectrum to enable studies of ultracold atoms requiring tunable interactions.^[109]

Health and safety hazards [edit]

Caesium

Hazards
GHS labelling:[110]
Pictograms
Bespeak word	Danger
Gamble statements	H260, H314
Precautionary statements	P223, P231+P232, P280, P305+P351+P338, P370+P378, P422
NFPA 704 (burn diamond)	iii 4 3 W

Chemical compound

The portion of the total radiation dose (in air) contributed by each isotope plotted against time afterward the Chernobyl disaster. Caesium-137 became the chief source of radiation nearly 200 days after the blow.^[111]

Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic, and nonradioactive caesium is not a significant ecology hazard. Considering biochemical processes tin can confuse and substitute caesium with potassium, excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrhythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, simply such amounts would not ordinarily exist encountered in natural sources.^{[112] [113]}

The median lethal dose (LD_fifty) for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 thousand per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD₅₀ values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride.^[114] The primary utilise of nonradioactive caesium is every bit caesium formate in petroleum drilling fluids because information technology is much less toxic than alternatives, though it is more costly.^[76]

Caesium metallic is i of the virtually reactive elements and is highly explosive in the presence of water. The hydrogen gas produced by the reaction is heated by the thermal energy released at the same time, causing ignition and a violent explosion. This can occur with other alkali metals, but caesium is so potent that this explosive reaction can be triggered even by common cold h2o.^[12]

It is highly pyrophoric: the autoignition temperature of caesium is −116 °C (−177 °F), and information technology ignites explosively in air to form caesium hydroxide and various oxides. Caesium hydroxide is a very strong base of operations, and will quickly corrode glass.^[17]

The isotopes 134 and 137 are present in the biosphere in pocket-size amounts from human activities, differing past location. Radiocaesium does not accumulate in the torso as readily as other fission products (such equally radioiodine and radiostrontium). About 10% of absorbed radiocaesium washes out of the torso relatively quickly in sweat and urine. The remaining xc% has a biological half-life between fifty and 150 days.^[115] Radiocaesium follows potassium and tends to accumulate in plant tissues, including fruits and vegetables.^{[116] [117] [118]} Plants vary widely in the assimilation of caesium, sometimes displaying great resistance to information technology. It is also well-documented that mushrooms from contaminated forests accumulate radiocaesium (caesium-137) in the fungal sporocarps.^[119] Aggregating of caesium-137 in lakes has been a great concern later on the Chernobyl disaster.^{[120] [121]} Experiments with dogs showed that a single dose of 3.8 millicuries (140 MBq, 4.i μg of caesium-137) per kilogram is lethal inside three weeks;^[122] smaller amounts may crusade infertility and cancer.^[123] The International Diminutive Free energy Agency and other sources accept warned that radioactive materials, such as caesium-137, could be used in radiological dispersion devices, or "dirty bombs".^[124]

See also [edit]

• Goiânia accident, a major radioactive contamination incident in 1987 involving Caesium-137.
• Kramatorsk radiological accident, another ¹³⁷Cs incident between 1980 and 1989.
• Acerinox accident, a Caesium-137 contamination accident in 1998.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Caesium is the spelling recommended past the International Wedlock of Pure and Practical Chemistry (IUPAC).^[7] The American Chemical Guild (ACS) has used the spelling cesium since 1921,^{[eight] [9]} following Webster'south New International Dictionary. The element was named after the Latin word caesius, significant "blue grey".^[x] In medieval and early on modern writings caesius was spelled with the ligature æ equally cæsius; hence, an alternative just now former-fashioned orthography is cæsium. More than spelling explanation at ae/oe vs e.
2. ^ Along with rubidium (39 °C [102 °F]), francium (estimated at 27 °C [81 °F]), mercury (−39 °C [−38 °F]), and gallium (30 °C [86 °F]); bromine is also liquid at room temperature (melting at −7.2 °C [19.0 °F]), only information technology is a halogen and non a metal. Preliminary work with copernicium and flerovium suggests that they are gaseous metals at room temperature.
3. ^ The radioactive element francium may also have a lower melting point, but its radioactive decay prevents enough of it from being isolated for direct testing.^[xv] Copernicium and flerovium may besides have lower melting points.
4. ^ It differs from this value in caesides, which contain the Cs⁻ anion and thus have caesium in the −1 oxidation state.^[3] Additionally, 2013 calculations by Mao-sheng Miao indicate that under atmospheric condition of extreme pressure (greater than 30 GPa), the inner 5p electrons could form chemic bonds, where caesium would behave as the seventh 5p chemical element. This discovery indicates that college caesium fluorides with caesium in oxidation states from +ii to +6 could exist under such conditions.^[25]
5. ^ Francium's electropositivity has non been experimentally measured due to its high radioactivity. Measurements of the outset ionization energy of francium advise that its relativistic effects may lower its reactivity and enhance its electronegativity above that expected from periodic trends.^[27]
6. ^ Bunsen quotes Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae Ii, 26 by Nigidius Figulus: Nostris autem veteribus caesia dicts est quae Graecis, ut Nigidus ait, de colore coeli quasi coelia.

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External links [edit]

This audio file was created from a revision of this commodity dated 29 November 2010 (2010-eleven-29), and does not reflect subsequent edits.

• Caesium or Cesium at The Periodic Table of Videos (Academy of Nottingham)
• View the reaction of Caesium (most reactive metal in the periodic table) with Fluorine (about reactive non-metal) courtesy of The Purple Institution.
• Rogachev, Andrey Yu.; Miao, Mao-Sheng; Merino, Gabriel; Hoffmann, Roald (2015). "Molecular CsF5and CsF2+". Angewandte Chemie. 127 (28): 8393–8396. Bibcode:2015AngCh.127.8393R. doi:10.1002/ange.201500402.

Is Cesium A Transition Metal,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium

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